[MAIPC] Biocontrols

[Marc Imlay]

Attached is our updated working document on biological controls with the
addition of Spotted Knapweed. Cheers

Marc Imlay, PhD, Chair, Biological control working Group  

Conservation biologist, Park Ranger Office, Non-native Invasive Plant
Control coordinator. 
(301) 442-5657 cell  ialm at erols.com <mailto:ialm at erols.com> 
Natural and Historical Resources Division
The  Maryland-National   Capital   Park  and Planning Commission
 <http://www.pgparks.com/> www.pgparks.com  

Mid-Atlantic Invasive Plant Council


Biological Control Work Group


 

Motto

 

Biological control agents help manage invasive plants beyond where we cut,
pull and spray.

 

Purpose and Scope

The group will investigate biological control agents relevant to the
mid-Atlantic region and the eastern U.S., affecting aquatic and terrestrial
species and ecosystems and provide updates and status reports to the board.
We will ensure that the board is kept informed of relevant research,
concerns and approvals and provided with information needed to obtain and
use them.

 

Objectives

1.     Provide review and current status of research on candidate biological
control agents.

2.     Provide land managers practical up-to date information on how to
obtain and use approved biological control agents.

3.     Provide the latest information on current distribution and success of
available biological control agents in controlling target, non-native
invasive plants at the established sites.

4.     Describe potential or actual measures of damage by biological control
agents to non-target plants at these sites.

Work Group Members

Marc Imlay, PhD (Chair)

Conservation Biologist  

MNCPPC Prince Georges County

Park Ranger Office

Natural and Historical Resources Division

Non-native Invasive Plant Control Coordinator

(301) 442-5657 cell  

ialm at erols.com

 

William L. Bruckart III

Research Plant Pathologist

USDA, ARS, Foreign Disease-Weed Science Research Unit (FDWSRU)

1301 Ditto Ave.

Ft. Detrick, MD 21702

Phone: 301/619-2846

FAX: 301/619-2880




william.bruckart at ars.usda <mailto:william.bruckart at ars.usda> .gov




Judy Hough-Goldstein

Professor

Dept. Entomology & Wildlife Ecology

University of Delaware

531 South College Ave.

Newark DE 19716-2160

(302) 831-2529 phone

jhough at udel.edu

 

John Peter Thompson

Principal Investigator, Bioeconomic Policy Analyst

Chair, Prince George's County Historic Preservation Commission

President, National Agricultural Research Alliance-Beltsville

Upper Marlboro, MD

(301) 440 8404

petrus at msn.com <mailto:petrus at msn.com> 

 

Robert H. Tichenor, Jr.

National Policy Manager Biological Control

USDA APHIS PPQ Plant Health Programs

4700 River Rd, Unit 133, Riverdale, MD 20737

(301) 851-2198

Robert.H.Tichenor at aphis.usda.gov <mailto:Robert.H.Tichenor at aphis.usda.gov> 

 




Background

Our tool kit for successful control of non-native invasive plants includes:
preventing new invasive species from coming into the United States; manually
removing established plants; treating infestations with carefully targeted
herbicides; and releasing host-specific biological control agents. 

Classical biological control involves the importation and release of
host-specific natural enemies to help regulate pest populations (Van
Driesche et al. 2010). This strategy is used to manage invasive non-native
species that lack effective natural enemies in the region where they have
been introduced. In order to avoid direct damage to non-target species,
biological control agents must be highly host specific.  Agents are brought
over after being tested for host specificity in their native range and then
tested in quarantine conditions in the United States. Protocol for
evaluating candidate plant pathogens (Berner and Bruckart 2005) is very
thorough and similar to that for development of insects and other organisms.


 

Safety is paramount in the use of biological control agents, particularly if
they are of foreign origin.  Agents are only approved for release if testing
indicates a very low likelihood of non-target effects, as determined by the
Technical Advisory Group for Biological Control Agents of Weeds (TAG), a
group of experts that report to USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service (APHIS). Because some agents introduced into the U.S. prior to the
1980s were not completely host-specific, more value is now placed on
conservation of native species; and some of these agents would not be
approved for importation today (Van Wilgen et al. 2013). Although such
species may provide some control, we do not recommend deliberate release
where they have not yet dispersed on their own. .  The safety record in the
current regulatory environment is very good, including that of both insects
(Pemberton 2000, Van Wilgen et al. 2013), and plant pathogens and other
microbials (Barton 2004, 2012; Cook et al. 1996).

 

 

Effectiveness of classical biological control can vary, but of 49 invasive
plant projects considered in a recent review (Van Driesche et al. 2010), 27%
(13) achieved complete control, 33% (16) provided partial control, and 49%
(24) were still in progress. Biological control can be dramatic, but results
often vary depending on weather and ecological conditions, which can impose
different effects on a biological control agent, the target plant, and the
competitive ability of the resident community. Suppression of a target plant
can also sometimes allow other non-native invasive plants to take over, and
therefore restoration planting may be required in some situations (Cutting
and Hough-Goldstein 2013; Lake et al. 2013).

 

Several invasive plant species in Mid-Atlantic natural areas (Swearingen et
al. 2010) have one or more host-specific insect species that have been
tested and approved for release, while others have had extensive studies
conducted on host-specific insects, with petitions for release submitted to
TAG, but with proposed releases still under review (TAG Petitions, 2013; see
species updates, below).  For some species, biological control agents may
already exist in the U.S. in the form of native insects and pathogens that
have adapted to the invasive species over time, or non-native species that
were accidentally introduced.  These are also included in the species
updates, below.

 

Species Updates

TERRESTRIAL PLANTS

Grasses


Japanese stiltgrass


The annual grass Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum) can be highly
invasive, especially on disturbed sites, and it is currently widely
distributed in the eastern U.S.  In Oak Ridge National Environmental
Research Park, Tennessee, Japanese stiltgrass was ranked the most
aggressively invasive nonnative species, based on distribution, abundance,
relative difficulty of control, and ability to exclude native plant species
(Fryer 2011).  Two species of Bipolaris have been described as cause of leaf
spots and necrosis of Japanese stiltgrass in the Eastern U.S.; some evidence
is that disease may be suppressing local populations.  Host range of these
species has not been fully tested, although limited symptom development was
reported on a few important grass (grain) species in artificial tests
(Kleczewski et al. 2012).  Research is on-going about this pathogen(s), its
host, and the potential for use in biological control of Japanese
stiltgrass. If you see leaf blight on Japanese stiltgrass during the growing
season please contact work group member William L. Bruckart, III.


 


Common reed 


Common reed (Phragmites australis) is highly invasive in eastern North
America, apparently due to the cryptic introduction of a non-native
subspecies (P. australis subsp. australis). A native, non-invasive
subspecies (P. australis subsp. americanus) has an overlapping distribution
with the invasive subspecies and appears to be declining in abundance. The
presence of the native subspecies complicates biological control of this
plant, since even highly host-specific insects may feed on both subspecies.


Tewksbury et al. (2002) reported 26 herbivores known to feed on P. australis
in North America, many of which had been accidentally introduced. In Europe,
more than 150 herbivore species were reported feeding on P. australis, some
causing significant damage. Based on feeding niche, damage, and reported
host specificity, nine insects were identified as having promise as
potential biocontrol agents. Two of these, Archanara geminipuncta and
Archanara neurica both stem-mining noctuid moths, have been studied in
detail, and petitions for release of these species are currently being
prepared (Lisa Tewksbury, personal communication).

Herbaceous Plants


Garlic mustard 


Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) a cool-season biennial herb, which can
invade forest understories and outcompete native plants, especially spring
ephemeral wildflowers. It is native to Eurasia and currently widely
distributed in the northeastern U.S. and Canada. Four weevil species in the
genus Ceutorhynchus have been extensively studied at CABI-Switzerland and
the University of Minnesota.  The root-crown mining weevil Ceutorhynchus
scrobicollis has been proposed for release in North America (Gerber et al.
2009).  TAG has requested additional host range tests, and the host plant
test petition is currently under review (TAG Petitions 2013). 


Nodding and plumeless thistles (Carduus species)


Species in the genus Carduus are all exotic to North America and many are
well known noxious and invasive plants
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species>  in the U.S. and elsewhere,
especially in pastures.  The most important pest species are winter annuals
or biennials, reproducing primarily by seed. A biological control program
targeting these species began in 1963. Four biological control agents have
become well-established in the U.S., the thistle head weevil
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinocyllus_conicus>  (Rhinocyllus conicus),
thistle crown weevil <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichosirocalus_horridus>
(Trichosirocalus horridus), the leaf beetle Cassida rubiginosa (accidentally
introduced), and the musk thistle rust
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puccinia_carduorum&action=edit&re
dlink=1>  fungus, Puccinia carduorum, and together these species have
successfully controlled Carduus thistles (Kok 2001). 

Unfortunately, several insect species imported for control of thistles have
been found to impact native thistle species.  The thistle head weevil (R.
conicus) has caused significant population declines in several native North
American thistles that also only reproduce by seed (Cripps et al. 2011).
Another seed-eating weevil, Larinus planus, is thought to have entered the
U.S. accidentally in the 1960s, and was first reported in Maryland in 1971.
This species has also been shown to negatively affect populations of rare
native thistle species (Havens et al. 2012).  For these reasons, deliberate
spread of these species is not recommended. 


Canada thistle


Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) is native to Eurasia, but has been spread
inadvertently throughout temperate regions of the world.  It is a widespread
perennial weed of agricultural and ecological areas in the northern and
southwestern states in the U.S.  A classical biological control program for
Canada thistle was initiated in North America in 1959.  However, nearly 50
years after the first agent releases, successful control of this species has
not been achieved (Cripps et al. 2011).  There are probably no additional
arthropod agents specific enough to be imported into North America targeting
Canada thistle (Cripps et al. 2011), but there may be potential with
pathogens.  The rust fungus Puccinia punctiformis is specific to Canada
thistle, and is present in all states where the plant is found.
Establishment of epiphytotics of the rust, and concomitant biological
control, has proven difficult, but has recently been demonstrated to be
readily achievable in field tests in the U.S. and three other countries
Berner et al. 2013).


Knotweeds 


Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica), giant knotweed (F. sachalinensis),
and the hybrid between these two, F. x bohemica, also known as Bohemian or
hybrid knotweed, are large herbaceous perennials that have spread throughout
much of North America, especially in riparian areas. Between 2007 and 2012,
four natural enemies from knotweed’s native range were tested as potential
biological control agents for knotweeds in North America--a leaf beetle, two
moths, and a psyllid (Grevstad et al. 2013).  Partners in this biocontrol
project include the U.S. Forest Service Forest Health Technology Enterprise
Team, Washington State Department of Agriculture, CABI- Biosciences United
Kingdom, and Agri-Food and Agriculture Canada.  Only one of these species
was found to be suitably host specific, the psyllid Aphalara itadori.  Two
different biotypes of the psyllid were evaluated—a northern biotype (from
Hokkaido), collected from giant knotweed, and a southern biotype (from
Kyushu) collected from Japanese knotweed. In 2011, the last of the
pre-release laboratory testing was completed for both biotypes. 

 

Host specificity tests were carried out using over 70 different native and
economically important North American Plant species.  Additional tests were
used to quantify oviposition preferences and ability for a population to
persist on non-targets.  The results indicate a high level of host
specificity to knotweeds, but differences in performance of the two biotypes
on the three knotweed species (Fallopia japonica, F. x bohemica, and F.
sachalinensis).  This means that both biotypes will likely be needed for
effective control against all knotweed species and genotypes in North
America.  The psyllids were found to be effective, reducing the growth and
biomass of potted knotweed plants by 50% in just over one psyllid generation
(Grevstad et al. 2013).  The psyllid has been proposed for release (TAG
petitions 2013), but APHIS is still studying the petition and TAG reviewer
comments and other material before responding with the petitioner. This
insect has been released in England and Wales since 2010 with no apparent
negative effects, and therefore its eventual approval in the U.S. seems
likely. 

 

Spotted Knapweed

 

More than 20 species and hybrids of Eurasian knapweeds, in the genus
Centaurea, have become established in North America (Story 2002, Winston et
al. 2012).  Of these, spotted knapweed, C. stoebe ssp. micranthos, has the
widest distribution in the US. It is a serious pasture pest in western
states, and is also found throughout most of the eastern US, where it can
invade certain rare native ecosystems such as open dune habitats in northern
Michigan (Marshall and Storer 2008, Carson and Landis 2014). Reinhart and
Rinella (2011) found no evidence of impact on resident plant species in
Shenandoah National Park, but acknowledged that this may change over time.
Anecdotal reports suggest that spotted knapweed can invade xeric sites in
the east such as rocky roadsides, strip mines, talus slopes, pastures,
sandplain grassland habitats, and coastal dunes, and can interfere with
grassland restoration efforts in such sites.

Thirteen approved biological control agents that attack spotted knapweed
have become established in the US (Winston et al. 2012). Several are
available for purchase (e.g.
<http://www.weedbustersbiocontrol.com/knapweedinsects.html>
http://www.weedbustersbiocontrol.com/knapweedinsects.html,
<http://www.bio-control.com/pricing.php>
http://www.bio-control.com/pricing.php), including the knapweed root weevil,
Cyphocleonus achates, and two closely related knapweed flower weevils,
Larinus minutus and L. obtusus. These species have been shown to suppress
seed production and biomass of the target weed to varying degrees, depending
on local resource conditions (soil nutrients, water, and sunlight), extent
of competition by adjacent vegetation, and intensity of herbivory (Knochel
and Seastedt 2010). One or more of these species have been released in
several eastern states, including New York (J. Dean, NY Natural Heritage
Program, pers. comm.), Massachusetts (E. Loucks, The Nature Conservancy,
pers. comm.), Pennsylvania (A. Rohrbaugh, PA Department of Conservation and
Natural Resources, pers. comm.), and Rhode Island (E. Tewksbury, URI, pers.
comm.).

Meadow knapweed (Centaurea x moncktonii), a fertile hybrid between black
knapweed (C. nigra) and brown knapweed (C. jacea), can be invasive in more
mesic to wet meadows in the east. Its population genetics and demography are
currently under study (L. Milbrath, USDA-ARS, pers. comm.). Larinus minutus
is the most promising agent currently approved for meadow knapweed (Winston
et al. 2012).


Purple Loosestrife


Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) is widespread across the U.S.  Three
insect biocontrols were approved for release in the early 1990s and have
been successfully reducing loosestrife infestations in freshwater wetlands
across the northern states where the heaviest infestations occur.  Purple
loosestrife leaf-feeding beetles (Galerucella species) can be purchased from
the Phillip Alampi Beneficial Insect Rearing Laboratory, New Jersey
Department of Agriculture (see Resources) or moved from established
populations within a state.  The Maryland Department of Natural Resources is
training Maryland residents who spend time outdoors in habitats where purple
loosestrife may grow to recognize the plant and report its locations to DNR
using an on-line or paper reporting form and to photograph them when
possible.  Those locations are mapped and assessed in order to allow DNR
staff to evaluate the potential for biocontrol releases (see Resources). 

 

Shrubs


Winged burning bush


Two closely related members of the bittersweet family (Celastraceae) --
winged burning bush (Euonymus alatus), a shrub, and winter creeper (Euonymus
fortunei), a perennial vine, are exotic introduced ornamentals that are
invasive in natural areas.  According to the Invasive Plant Atlas of the
United States, they are both invasive throughout the northeastern U.S. (see
Resources).  Euonymus scale, Unaspis euonymi, is an accidentally introduced
insect that infests both species, and can weaken and kill these.  However,
because it is a generalist and feeds on both native and non-native species
in this family, it is not recommended as a good candidate for biological
control.  


Multiflora Rose


Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) occurs throughout the eastern half of the
United States and in Washington and Oregon.  At least two native or
naturalized pests help keep it in check to some extent.  One is a native
eriophyid mite, Phyllocoptes fructiphilus that transmits an RNA virus that
causes Rose Rosette disease.  Diseased plants are now known on the East
Coast, and the disease has caused reduction of multiflora rose densities in
certain areas.  Symptoms include compaction of lateral branches into
“witches brooms” and both stunting and reddening of shoots.  Diseased plants
are weakened and often die as a result.  

The rose-seed chalcid (Megastigmus aculeatus var. nigroflavus), a wasp, was
introduced accidentally from Europe.  Although it can reduce seed yield of
R. multiflora, it has limited potential to reduce reproduction (Jesse et al.
2013).  An important drawback to both the virus and the chalcid wasp is that
ornamental roses are susceptible and damaged from these organisms.  A USDA
Beltsville study shows that native rose rosette disease is harmless to
several native roses.  Research on the effects of the evidently native rose
rosette disease has revealed that it is harmless to native roses.  The
native species of roses (Rosa setigera, R. virginiana, and R. palustris) and
the naturalized R. rugosa seem to be very resistant to possibly immune to
the disease (see Resources).   

 

Trees

Tree-of-Heaven 

Tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima, was deliberately introduced as an
ornamental species in the 1700s, and has now been reported in 30 states.
The Asian weevil Eucryptorrhynchus brandti is being studied at Virginia Tech
(Herrick et al. 2012). The only non-target species that the weevil has
showed some acceptance of is corkwood, Leitneria floridana, which is listed
as a threatened species in Florida, and therefore the initial petition for
release was denied by TAG in 2012. The research group is continuing to study
the insect’s potential host range, and hopes to resubmit the petition (Tom
McAvoy, Virginia Tech, personal communication). 


A native, soil-borne vascular wilt fungus, Verticillium nonalfalfae, has
been found killing large numbers of Ailanthus altissima trees in
south-central Pennsylvania and north-western Maryland, and this fungus
appears to be quite host specific (Schall and Davis 2009a, b).  Natural,
long-range dissemination of this fungus is limited, and researchers are
currently working on determining the best way to use it.  In addition, it is
unclear at this point how or whether use of this pathogen should be
regulated.  Atteva punctella, the ailanthus webworm, is thought to be native
to southern Florida and Central America, and has apparently expanded its
host range and distribution onto tree-of-heaven, where it can cause serious
damage, especially to seedlings and small plants (Ding et al. 2006). 


 

Vines


Mile-a-Minute Weed


Mile-a-minute weed (Persicaria perfoliata) is an invasive annual vine that
was accidentally introduced into Pennsylvania in the 1930s and has since
expanded its range throughout much of the northeast (see Resources).  The
host-specific weevil Rhinoncomimus latipes was approved for release in 2004,
and has been released throughout the range of the host, with considerable
though somewhat variable success (Hough-Goldstein et al. 2012).  The weevils
are being mass-reared by the Phillip Alampi Laboratory in New Jersey, and
can be obtained from that Laboratory or moved from established populations
within a state.  A plant pathogen, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides from
Turkey (Berner, et al., 2012) is being evaluated in host range tests at the
USDA, ARS, Foreign Disease-Weed Science Research Unit (FDWSRU), at Ft.
Detrick, MD. Propagation materials of plant relatives in the Polygonaceae
family are needed to complete these host range tests.

 


Swallowworts  


 

Two invasive swallow-worts, pale (Vincetoxicum rossicum) and black (V.
nigrum), are well established in the northeastern U.S. and are expanding in
the mid-Atlantic region and southern Canada.  A biological control agent
(Hypena opulenta), a moth, was recently approved for release in Canada (see
Resources). This species has been tested on 76 plant species, with no larval
survival on any tested genus other than Vincetoxicum. Based on current
evidence, the two invasive species targeted are the only Vincetoxicum
species currently in North America; however, all related species (including
those considered congeneric with the target plant species by some botanists)
were also tested and found not to allow survival of H. opulenta (R.
Casagrande, personal communication). A petition for field release of this
host-specific moth in the U.S. has been approved by TAG and is currently in
the post-TAG review process through USDA-APHIS.

 

 

AQUATIC PLANTS


Eurasian Watermilfoil


Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), is the most significant
aquatic weed in the continental United States based on high cost of control
efforts (Cock et al. 2008).  High densities of Eurasian watermilfoil
negatively affect wildlife and fish populations and recreational use.  It is
abundant in the Chesapeake Bay and tidal Potomac River (Swearingen et al.
2010).   A classical biological control program was initiated for M.
spicatum in 1965, with U.S. and overseas researchers surveying parts of the
native range in Europe and Asia for specialist natural enemies (Cock et al.
2008).  More than 20 species were identified as feeding on M. spicatum, but
few were seriously investigated to determine their potential. Cock et al.
(2008) summarize species that were found and propose additional research
that could lead to viable classical biocontrol. 

 

Since the early 1990s, researchers have been studying the potential of the
native milfoil weevil, Euhrychiopsis lecontei, to control populations of
Eurasian watermilfoil (Menninger 2011). This weevil has been found to prefer
the Eurasian species over its native host, northern watermilfoil (M.
sibiricum).  Milfoil weevils are found throughout the northern continental
United States and portions of Canada. Eurasian watermilfoil control in lake
management projects has been conducted through augmentation programs, where
these weevils are reared in mass numbers and introduced into infested water
bodies. EnviroScience, Inc. offers milfoil weevils as a commercial product,
where clusters of milfoil containing eggs and larvae are attached to
watermilfoil stems in an infested lake. However, few evaluations of this
process have been published, and the one peer-reviewed paper on its
effectiveness (Reeves et al. 2008) showed little effect. An alternative
augmentation strategy, releasing adult weevils, is being studied (Menninger
2011).

Parrotfeather

A relative of Eurasian watermilfoil is parrotfeather (Myriophyllum
aquaticum), a native of South America and invasive in about 20 states along
the East and West coasts and throughout the southern U.S. (see Resources).
Biological control agents are not currently available for this exotic
species but potential agents exist in South America and are being
investigated.  A complex of insects feed on parrotfeather in its native
habitat, including a leaf-feeding beetle which has been found to be very
host-specific and has been imported to control parrotfeather in South Africa
(Cilliers 1999).


Giant salvinia


Giant salvinia, Salvinia molesta, was first detected in North America at a
small pond in South Carolina in 1995, where it was eradicated with
herbicides.  Extensive infestations were later discovered in large drainages
in Texas during 1999, and it now occurs in at least 12 states mainly in the
southeastern U.S. from eastern Texas through eastern North Carolina (Tipping
et al. 2008).  In the summer of 2000, a small population was discovered in
ornamental ponds in Washington, D.C. but it was quickly eradicated
(Swearingen et al. 2010).  The weevil Cyrtobagous salviniae has been used
successfully in at least 15 countries to reduce the dominance of S. molesta
in invaded freshwater ecosystems, and was used successfully in Texas and
Louisiana (Tipping et al. 2008).  However, this weevil is not always
effective, because it is less tolerant of cold temperatures than Giant
salvinia. In 2005, salvinia weevils that were released into the River Bend
Swamp of Pender County, North Carolina, did not overwinter, while the Giant
salvinia plants survived (see Resources).


Hydrilla


Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), is a submersed aquatic that roots in the
soil and grows upwards, producing thick floating mats at the water's
surface.  It is believed to be native to Asia or Africa but is now globally
distributed and was first introduced into North America as an aquarium plant
in the 1950s.  Hydrilla is now the most severe aquatic plant problem in the
southern U.S. (Center et al. 2013).  It has expanded its range north to New
England, and is found in much of the Potomac River, in Virginia and Maryland
freshwater tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay, in the Delaware portion of the
Nanticoke River, most southern Delaware ponds, and in sites in eastern
Pennsylvania (Swearingen et al. 2010). Hydrilla out-competes native
submerged aquatic vegetation and can quickly fill a pond or lake, making the
water body unsuitable for recreational uses. Herbivorous fish such as
sterile grass carp have been used for hydrilla control where allowed by law.
A host-specific semi-aquatic weevil, Bagous hydrillae, was released in the
southern U.S. during 1991-1996, but was thought not to have established. In
2009, adult B. hydrillae were collected in southern Louisiana, suggesting
that this weevil species has persisted and dispersed widely in the
southeastern U.S. However, B. hydrillae does not seem to be suppressing
hydrilla (Center et al. 2013).


European Water Chestnut


European water chestnut (Trapa natans) is an invasive aquatic plant native
to Europe and Asia.  It was first observed in the United States in
Massachusetts in the late 1800s.  Its current distribution is the
mid-Atlantic and northeastern U.S., with the most serious problems being
reported for the Connecticut River valley, Lake Champlain region, Hudson
River, Potomac River and the upper Delaware River (Swearingen et al. 2010).
This species can form dense floating mats, and its sharp fruits can cause
painful wounds, making control efforts a challenge.  The most promising
species for biological control is Galerucella birmanica, a leaf beetle (Ding
et al. 2006, 2007), but so far no petitions have been submitted to TAG.

 

Water Hyacinth 

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), is a South American species that can
survive in the mid-Atlantic under mild winter conditions. Three insects have
been released in Florida as biological controls of water hyacinth: two
weevils, Neochetina eichhorniae and N. bruchi (released in 1972 and 1974,
respectively), and a pyralid moth, Sameodes albiguttalis (released in 1977)
(Center et al. 1999). So far satisfactory control has not been obtained with
biological control agents alone, but integrated control may be feasible
(Center et al. 1999; Center and Dray 2010). 

 

References

Barton (née Fro¨hlich), J. 2004. How good are we at predicting the field
host-range of fungal pathogens used for classical biological control of
weeds? Biological Control 31:99–122.

 

Barton, J. 2012. Predictability of pathogen host range in classical
biological control of weeds: an update. BioControl 57:289–305. doi
10.1007/s10526-011-9401-7

 

Berner, D.K., and Bruckart, W.L.  2005.  A decision tree for evaluation of
exotic plant pathogens for classical biological control of introduced
invasive weeds.  Biological Control 34: 222–232.
doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.04.012

 

Berner, D., C. Cavin, Z. Mukhina, and D. Kassanelly. 2011. Leaf anthracnose,
a new disease of swallow-worts caused by Colletotrichum lineola from Russia.
Plant Disease  95:1586.

 

Berner, D. K.,  C. A. Cavin,  I. Erper, and B. Tunali. 2012. First report of
anthracnose of mile-a-minute (Persicaria perfoliata) caused by
Colletotrichum cf. gloeosporioides in Turkey. Plant Disease 96:1578.

 

 

Berner, D., E. Smallwood, C. Cavin, A. Lagopodi, J. Kashefi, T. Kolomiets,
L. Pankratova, Z. Mukhina, M. Cripps, and G. Bourdot. 2013. Successful
establishment of epiphytotics of Puccinia punctiformis for biological
control of Cirsium arvense. Biological Control 67:350-360.

 

Carson, B.D. and D.A. Landis. 2014. Phenology and dispersal of Larinus
obtusus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), two biological control agents
of Centaurea stoebe ssp. micranthos  (spotted knapweed) in Michigan.
Biological Control 79: 84-91.

 

Center, T.D. and F.A. Dray Jr.  2010. Bottom-up control of water hyacinth
weevil populations: do the plants regulate the insects? J. Applied Ecology
47:329-337.

 

Center, T.D., F.A. Dray, Jr., G.P. Jubinsky, and M.J. Grodowitz. 1999.
Biological control of water hyacinth under conditions of maintenance
management: can herbicides and insects be integrated? Environmental
Mangement 23:241-256.

 

Center, T.D., K. Parys, M. Grodowitz, G.S. Wheeler, F.A. Dray, C.W. O’Brien,
S. Johnson, and A. Cofrancesco. 2013. Evidence of establishment of Bagous
hydrillae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a biological control agent of
Hydrilla verticillata (Hydrocharitales: Hydrocharitaceae) in North America?
Florida Entomologist 96:180-186.

 

 

Cilliers, C. J. 1999. Lysathia n. sp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a
host-specific beetle for the control of the aquatic weed Myriophyllum
aquaticum (Haloragaceae) in South Africa. Hydrobiologia 415:271–276.

 

Cock, M.J.W., H.L. Hinz, G. Grosskipf, and P Hafliger. 2008. Development of
a Biological Control Program for Eurasian Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum
spicatum). CABI Europe – Switzerland ERDC/EL TR-08-22.
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/elpubs/pdf/trel08-22.pdf 

 

Cook, R.J., Bruckart, W.L., Coulson, J.R., Goettel, M.S., Humber, R.A.,
Lumsden, R.D., Maddox, J.V., McManus, M.L., Moore, L., Meyer, S.F., Quimby,
P.C., JR., Stack, J.P., and Vaughan, J.L. 1996. Safety of microorganisms
intended for pest and plant disease control: a framework for scientific
evaluation. Biological Control 7: 333–351.

 

Cripps, M.G., A. Gassmann, S.V. Fowler, G.W. Bourdot, A.S. McClay, and G.R.
Edwards. 2011. Classical biological control of Cirsium arvense: Lessons from
the past. Biological Control 57:165-174.

 

Cutting, K., and J. Hough-Goldstein. 2013. Integration of biological control
and native seeding to restore invaded plant communities. Restoration Ecology
21:648-655.

 

Ding, J., Y. Wu, H. Zheng, W. Fu, R. Reardon, and M. Liu. 2006a. Assessing
potential biological control of the invasive plant, tree-of-heaven,
Ailanthus altissima. 

 

Ding, J., B. Blossey, Y. Du, and F. Zheng. 2006b. Galerucella birmanica
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a promising potential biological control agent
of water chestnut, Trapa natans. Biological Control 36:80–90. 

 

Ding, J., Y. Wang, and X. Jin. 2007. Monitoring populations of Galerucella
birmanica (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) on Brasenia schreberi and Trapa natans
(Lythraceae): Implications for biological control. Biological Control 43:
71–77.

 

Fryer, J. L.  2011. Microstegium vimineum. In: Fire Effects Information
System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ 

 

Gerber, E. , G. Cortat , H. L. Hinz , B. Blossey , E. Katovich, and L.
Skinner. 2009. Biology and host specificity of Ceutorhynchus scrobicollis
(Curculionidae; Coleoptera), a root-crown mining weevil proposed as
biological control agent against Alliaria petiolata in North America,
Biocontrol Science and Technology, 19:2, 117-138 

 

Grevstad, F., R. Shaw, R. Bourchier, P. Sanguankeo, G. Cortat, and R.C.
Reardon. 2013. Efficacy and host specificity compared between two
populations of the psyllid Aphalara itadori, candidates for biological
control of invasive knotweeds in North America. Biological Control.
65:53-62.

 

Havens, K., C.L. Jolls, J.E. Marik, P. Vitt, A.K. McEachern, and D. Kind.
2012. Effects of a non-native biocontrol weevil, Larinus planus, and other
emerging threats on populations of the federally threatened Pitcher’s
thistle, Cirsium pitcher. Biological Conservation 155:202-211.

Herrick, N.J., T. J. McAvoy, A. L. Snyder, S. M. Salom, and L. T. Kok. 2012.
Host-range testing of Eucryptorrhynchus brandti (Coleoptera: Curculionidae),
a candidate for biological control of tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima
Environ. Entomol. 41: 118-124 

 

Hough-Goldstein, J., E. Lake, and R. Reardon. 2012. Status of an ongoing
biological control program for the invasive vine, Persicaria perfoliata in
eastern North America. BioControl 57:181-189.

 

Jesse, L., M. Collyer, K. Maloney, and J.J. Obrycki. 2013. Distribution of
Megastigmus aculeatus (Hymenoptera: Torymidae) and the levels of seed
predation of Rosa multiflora (Rosaceae). Weed Biology and Management
13:79-88.

 

Kleczewski, N.M., S. L. Flory, and K. Clay. 2012. Variation in pathogenicity
and host range of Bipolaris sp. causing leaf blight disease on the invasive
grass Microstegium vimineum. Weed Science 60:486–493.

 

Knochel, D.G. and T.R. Seastedt. 2010. Reconciling contradictory findings of
herbivore impacts on spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe) growth and
reproduction. Ecological Applications 20:1903-1912.

 

Kok, L.T. 2001. Classical biological control of nodding and plumeless
thistles. Biological Control 21:206–213.

 

Lake, E., J. Hough-Goldstein, and V. D’Amico. 2013. Integrating management
techniques to restore sites invaded by mile-a-minute weed, Persicaria
perfoliata. Restoration Ecology (online first). DOI: 10.1111/rec.12035.

 

Marshall, J.M. and A.J. Storer. 2008. Comparative analysis of plant and
ground dwelling arthropod communities in lacustrine dune areas with and
without Centaurea biebersteinii (Asteraceae). The American Midland
Naturalist 159:261-274.

 

Menninger, H. 2011. A Review of the Science and Management of Eurasian
Watermilfoil: Recommendations for Future Action in New York State.
http://adkinvasives.com/documents/NYISRIEWMReport_Final_11Nov2011.pdf 

 

Pemberton, R.W. (2000) Predictable risk to native plants in weed biological
control. Oecologia 125:489–494.

 

Reeves, J.L., P.D. Lorch, M.W. Kershner, and M.A. Hilovsky. 2008. Biological
control of Eurasian watermilfoil by Euhrychiopsis lecontei: assessing
efficacy and timing of sampling. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management
46:144-149.

 

Reinhart, K.O. and M. Rinella. 2011. Comparing susceptibility of eastern and
western US grasslands to competition and allelopathy from spotted knapweed
[Centaurea stoebe L. subsp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek]. Plant Ecology
212:821-828.

 

 

Schall, M.J., and D.D. Davis. 2009a. Ailanthus altissima wilt and mortality:
etiology. Plant Disease 93:747–751.

 

Schall, M.J., and D.D. Davis. 2009b. Verticillium wilt of Ailanthus
altissima: susceptibility of associated tree species. Plant Disease
93:1158-1162.

 

Solarz S. L. and R.M. Newman. 2001. Variation in hostplant preference and
performance by the milfoil weevil, Euhrychiopsis lecontei Dietz, exposed to
native and exotic watermilfoils. Oecologia 126:66–75.

 

Story, J. 2002. Spotted knapweed. Ch. 13 In: Van Driesche, R., B. Blossey,
M. Hoddle, S. Lyon, and R. Reardon. 2002. Biological Control of Invasive
Plants in the Eastern United States, USDA Forest Service Publication
FHTET-2002-04, 413 p.

 

Swearingen, J., K. Reshetiloff, B. Slattery, and S. Zwicker. 2010. Plant
Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas, 4th ed. National Park Service, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service.

TAG Petitions. 2013.
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/permits/tag/downloads/TAGPetitionActi
on.pdf (updated 10/22/2013). 

 

Tewksbury, L., R. Casagrande, B. Blossey, P. Häfliger, and M. Schwarzländer.
2002. Potential for biological control of Phragmites australis in North
America. Biological Control 23:191-212.

 

Tipping, P.W., M.R. Martin, T.D. Center, and T.M. Davern. 2008. Suppression
of Salvinia molesta Mitchell in Texas and Louisiana by Cyrtobagous salviniae
Calder and Sands. Aquatic Botany 88:196-202.

 

Van Driesche, R.G., R.I. Carruthers, T. Center, M.S. Hoddle, J.
Hough-Goldstein, L. Morin, L. Smith, D.L. Wagner, et al. 2010. Classical
biological control for the protection of natural ecosystems. Biological
Control 54: S2 – S33.

 

Van Wilgen, B.W., V.C. Moran, and J.H. Hoffmann. 2013. Some perspectives on
the risks and benefits of biological control of invasive alien plants in the
management of natural ecosystems. Environmental Management 52:531-540.

 

Winston, R., M. Schwarzländer, C.B. Randall, and R. Reardon. 2012. Biology
and Biological Control of Knapweeds. USDA Forest Service Publication
FHTET-2011-05, 2nd Edition, 139 pp.

 

Resources

Maryland Department of Natural Resources Biocontrol Releases (Purple
Loosestrife):
http://dnr.maryland.gov/wildlife/Plants_Wildlife/PurpleLoosestrife/index.asp

 

Phillip Alampi Beneficial Insect Rearing Laboratory, New Jersey Department
of Agriculture:
http://www.state.nj.us/agriculture/divisions/pi/prog/beneficialinsect.html

 

Mile-a-minute current range:
http://www.eddmaps.org/midatlantic/distribution/midatlantic.cfm?sub=3065

http://ag.udel.edu/enwc/research/biocontrol/mileaminute.htm).

 

Swallow-wort biocontrol

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130927182942.htm 

 

Knotweed biocontrol

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1049964413000030)

 

Purple loosestrife

Maryland Department of Natural Resources Biocontrol Releases
http://dnr.maryland.gov/wildlife/Plants_Wildlife/PurpleLoosestrife/index.asp

 

 

Multiflora rose – insect and disease controls

www.nps.gov/plants/ALIEN/fact/romu1.htm
<http://www.nps.gov/plants/ALIEN/fact/romu1.htm>  

www.mdinvasivesp.org/archived_invaders/archived_invaders_2006_05.html
<http://www.mdinvasivesp.org/archived_invaders/archived_invaders_2006_05.htm
l> 

http://www.mdinvasivesp.org/archived_invaders/archived_invaders_2011_07.html

 

Winged burning bush and winter creeper distributions

http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub=3023

http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub=3024

 

Parrotfeather distribution

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/weeds/aqua003.html


Giant salvinia


http://www.doi.gov/ocl/hearings/112/GiantSalvinia_062711.cfm

 

 

 

 

Research Contacts

Dana K. Berner

USDA, ARS, Foreign Disease-Weed Science Research Unit (FDWSRU)

1301 Ditto Ave.

Ft. Detrick, MD 21702

Phone: 301/619-2846

Fax: 301/619-2880




email

 

William L. Bruckart III

USDA, ARS, Foreign Disease-Weed Science Research Unit (FDWSRU)

1301 Ditto Ave.

Ft. Detrick, MD 21702

Phone: 301/619-2846

Fax: 301/619-2880




Email: william.bruckart at ars.usda.gov <mailto:william.bruckart at ars.usda.gov>





Judy Hough-Goldstein, Professor

Dept. Entomology & Wildlife Ecology

531 South College Ave.

University of Delaware, Newark DE 19716-2160

Phone: 302-831-2529

Fax: 302-831-8889

Email: jhough at udel.edu

 

 

Richard Reardon 

Biological Control of Invasive Plants Research 

USDA Forest Service-FHTET

180 Canfield St.

Morgantown, WV 26505

(304) 285-1550

Email: rreardon at fs.fed.us <mailto:rreardon at fs.fed.us> 

 

Yun Wu 

Biological Control of Invasive Plants Research 

USDA Forest Service-FHTET

180 Canfield St.

Morgantown, WV 26505

(304) 285-1594

Email: ywu at fs.fed.us

 

 



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